01:119:115 · Flashcards

01:119:115 General Biology I Review: Cells, Metabolism, Genetics, Evolution and Ecology

32 termsRutgers Universityby @studyboardUpdated October 2026

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A study set written by the Studyboard team for the topics in this course's published outline. It isn't official course material from Rutgers University and doesn't contain real exam questions.

Terms in this set (32)

  1. Four major classes of biological macromolecules and their monomersCarbohydrates (monosaccharides), proteins (amino acids), nucleic acids (nucleotides) and lipids (not true polymers; fats are built from glycerol and fatty acids).
  2. Dehydration synthesis vs hydrolysisDehydration synthesis joins monomers by removing a water molecule; hydrolysis breaks polymers apart by adding water.
  3. Four levels of protein structurePrimary: amino acid sequence. Secondary: alpha helices and beta sheets from backbone hydrogen bonds. Tertiary: overall 3D fold from R-group interactions. Quaternary: multiple polypeptide subunits.
  4. Prokaryotic vs eukaryotic cellsProkaryotes (bacteria and archaea) lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotes have a nucleus, membrane-bound organelles and usually larger cells.
  5. Endosymbiotic theory and its evidenceMitochondria and chloroplasts descend from engulfed prokaryotes. Evidence: they have their own circular DNA, double membranes, bacteria-like ribosomes and divide by fission.
  6. Fluid mosaic modelThe plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded in or attached to it, and its components can move laterally.
  7. Osmosis: what happens to an animal cell in a hypotonic solution?Water moves into the cell because the solution has a lower solute concentration than the cytoplasm, so the cell swells and may burst (lyse).
  8. Passive vs active transportPassive transport (diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis) moves substances down their concentration gradient without energy input; active transport moves them against it using energy, usually ATP, as in the sodium-potassium pump.
  9. How do enzymes speed up reactions?They lower the activation energy by binding substrates at the active site; they do not change the overall free energy change (delta G) of the reaction.
  10. Competitive vs noncompetitive inhibitionA competitive inhibitor binds the active site and can be outcompeted by more substrate. A noncompetitive inhibitor binds elsewhere and changes the enzyme's shape, reducing activity regardless of substrate level.
  11. Overall equation for cellular respirationC6H12O6 + 6 O2 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy (ATP and heat).
  12. Stages of aerobic respiration and where they occurGlycolysis (cytosol), pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle (mitochondrial matrix), and oxidative phosphorylation via the electron transport chain and chemiosmosis (inner mitochondrial membrane).
  13. Role of oxygen in cellular respirationOxygen is the final electron acceptor of the electron transport chain, combining with electrons and H+ to form water.
  14. Why does fermentation occur and what does it regenerate?Without oxygen, cells use fermentation to regenerate NAD+ from NADH so glycolysis can continue producing a small amount of ATP; products include lactate or ethanol plus CO2.
  15. Light reactions vs Calvin cycleLight reactions (thylakoid membranes) split water, release O2 and make ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle (stroma) uses that ATP and NADPH to fix CO2 into sugar, with rubisco as the key enzyme.
  16. Phases of mitosis in orderProphase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase, usually followed by cytokinesis.
  17. Mitosis vs meiosisMitosis produces two genetically identical diploid cells for growth and repair. Meiosis has two divisions and produces four genetically different haploid gametes.
  18. Sources of genetic variation in meiosisCrossing over between homologous chromosomes in prophase I, independent assortment of homologs in metaphase I, and random fertilization.
  19. Central dogma of molecular biologyDNA is transcribed into mRNA, and mRNA is translated into protein by ribosomes.
  20. Key features of DNA replicationIt is semiconservative; DNA polymerase adds nucleotides only in the 5' to 3' direction, so the leading strand is made continuously and the lagging strand in Okazaki fragments joined by ligase.
  21. Role of tRNA in translationEach tRNA carries a specific amino acid and has an anticodon that base-pairs with a complementary mRNA codon in the ribosome.
  22. The lac operon: what happens when lactose is present?Lactose (as allolactose) binds the repressor, releasing it from the operator so RNA polymerase can transcribe the genes for lactose metabolism.
  23. Mendel's law of segregationEach organism has two alleles for a gene, and they separate during gamete formation so each gamete carries only one allele.
  24. Mini-problem: cross Aa x Aa. Expected genotype and phenotype ratios?Genotypes 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa; phenotypes 3 dominant : 1 recessive.
  25. Incomplete dominance vs codominanceIncomplete dominance: heterozygote has an intermediate phenotype (red x white gives pink). Codominance: both alleles are fully expressed (AB blood type).
  26. Why are X-linked recessive disorders more common in males?Males have one X chromosome, so a single recessive allele on that X is expressed; females need two copies.
  27. Hardy-Weinberg equations and what they assumep + q = 1 and p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1. Assumes no mutation, random mating, no natural selection, a very large population (no drift) and no gene flow.
  28. Mini-problem: 16 percent of a population shows a recessive trait. What is the frequency of the recessive allele?q^2 = 0.16, so q = 0.4.
  29. Natural selection: what conditions are required?Heritable variation among individuals, more offspring produced than can survive, and differential survival and reproduction based on traits.
  30. Prezygotic vs postzygotic reproductive barriersPrezygotic barriers prevent mating or fertilization (habitat, behavioral, temporal, mechanical, gametic isolation). Postzygotic barriers act after fertilization (hybrid inviability, sterility or breakdown).
  31. Logistic vs exponential population growthExponential growth is unlimited J-shaped growth (dN/dt = rN). Logistic growth slows as population nears carrying capacity K, producing an S-shaped curve (dN/dt = rN(K - N)/K).
  32. Roughly what fraction of energy passes from one trophic level to the next?About 10 percent; the rest is lost mainly as heat through metabolism, which limits the length of food chains.

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